“Ultimately, much greater oversight of psychiatric drug influence in violent crimes is urgently needed.” – Jan Eastgate, President CCHR International

New CCHR report documents 145 violent incidents by individuals taking or withdrawing from prescription psychotropic drugs, resulting in 720 deaths and 1,602 injuries; demands nationwide toxicology screening and database.

By Jan Eastgate
President, CCHR International
April 28, 2026

A new CCHR International report documents 145 cases of senseless violence committed by individuals taking or withdrawing from psychiatric drugs. These incidents—including mass shootings, stabbings, vehicle assaults, domestic strangulations, and other attacks—resulted in 720 people killed and 1,602 wounded or injured.

The cases, compiled from media reports, court rulings, and available toxicology findings, point to a significant gap: toxicology testing for psychotropic drugs is rarely conducted or publicly reported in violent crime investigations. Only nine cases in the sample included publicly reported toxicology or autopsy results. This underscores the need to mandate comprehensive forensic reporting, including mental health treatment history, prescription records obtained via warrants or subpoenas, and consultation with treating providers or pharmacies—and to require psychotropic toxicology testing in all acts of mass or extreme violence.

The proposal is modeled after Tennessee’s 2025 law, which requires medical examiners to consult known treating mental health professionals or primary care physicians for psychotropic drug information in deceased mass shooters.[1]

Key Statistics

• Country of Origin: 118 cases (81%) occurred in the U.S., but included two active-duty servicemen in Iraq and Afghanistan. Other countries include Australia, Canada, France, the UK, Finland, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, and Sweden.

• Method of Violence: 92 shootings (63.5%), including 34 school shootings; 24 stabbings (17%), including an axe attack and 8 school stabbings. The remaining 29 cases involved mixed shooting/stabbing, choking, vehicle assaults (2), strangulation/suffocation/drowning (10), and the Germanwings flight crash (149 killed).

• Perpetrator Outcomes: At least 58 (40%) died during the incident—45 (31%) by suicide and 13 (9%) killed by responders (questionably acts of “suicide by cop”).

• Ages: 6–19: 46 (31.7%); 18–25: 39 (26.8%); 26–35: 40 (27.6%); 36–74: 36 (24.8%). Children as young as six have committed acts of violence while drugged. Examples include:

• Unidentified 6-year-old boy, Newport News, VA (2023): Shot and wounded a teacher while being treated for “ADHD.”[2]

• Unidentified 10-year-old boy, El Cajon, CA (2012): Stabbed his 12-year-old friend to death while taking the antidepressant Anafranil.[3]

• Jose Reyes, 12, Sparks, NV (2013): Killed a teacher and wounded two classmates before committing suicide; taking fluoxetine.[4]

• Christopher Pittman, 12, South Carolina (2001): Shot and killed his grandparents while prescribed the SSRI antidepressants, Paxil and later, Zoloft.[5]

• Toby R. Sincino, 15, Blackville High School, South Carolina (1995): Shot two teachers before killing himself while taking an SSRI antidepressant.[6]

• Nikolas Cruz, 19, Parkland, Florida (2018): Shot and killed 17 people and injured 17 at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School. He had been prescribed psychiatric drugs since age 6, including antipsychotics and stimulants.[7]

• Brandon Scott Hole, 19, Indianapolis, Indiana (2021): Killed eight and wounded seven at a FedEx building. He had been prescribed psychiatric drugs from around age 10.[8]

The report is reinforced by the U.S. Violence Prevention Project’s Mass Shooter Database, which shows that 24% of mass shooters had been taking psychiatric drugs. Due to sealed records and limited toxicology disclosures, the true figure is likely much higher.[9]

Psychiatric Treatment History: At least 40 perpetrators (27.6%) had prior psychiatric hospitalization. As of 2019, in the U.S., according to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration’s National Mental Health Services Survey, over 98% of psychiatric hospitals and 72% of outpatient mental health facilities provided psychotropic drugs.[10] Accordingly, when violent offenders are reported to have prior psychiatric hospitalization, it is reasonable to assume—on the balance of probabilities—that they were prescribed psychotropic drugs during their treatment.

The scope of exposure extends well beyond psychiatric hospitals. A 2016–2019 Medical Expenditure Panel Survey showed psychiatrists wrote only 33.5% of prescriptions; general practitioners, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants wrote over 60%.[11]

As an example, doctors prescribed a real estate agent ketamine nasal spray to treat chronic pain off-label (the drug is approved by the Food and Drug Administration to treat depression[12]). He’d been taking it every day for about three weeks before he attempted to rape his wife and made death threats to responding police, assaulting one of them.[13] The man blamed the episode on a high dose of ketamine the doctors prescribed.[14]

Court Rulings Linking Drugs to Violence: Courts have directly implicated psychiatric drugs in at least four cases:

• 1998, Wyoming: Donald Schell (60) killed his wife, daughter, and granddaughter after two days on Paxil, then committed suicide. A jury found the drug 80% responsible and awarded $6.4 million.[15] (Civil decision)

• 1999, Australia: David Hawkins (74) strangled his wife while on Zoloft. The judge ruled the drug was responsible for the act. “The medical evidence strongly supports a conclusion that but for the effect of the 250 mg of Zoloft he had taken, it is wholly unlikely that the prisoner would have committed the crime.”[16] (Convicted)

• 1999, North Dakota: Ryan Ehlis (25) killed his infant daughter while on Adderall; charges dismissed after experts linked the stimulant to psychosis.[17] (Charges dismissed)

• 2009, Canada: A 16-year-old knifed his friend to death on Prozac. The judge found the drug caused impulsive violence; his behavior normalized off the drug.[18] (Convicted)

In a related 2006 case, former All-Star relief pitcher Jeff Reardon, 50, who earned more than $11.5 million in his career and had no financial problems, robbed a jewelry store without a motive while threatening employees that he had a gun. Distraught over his 20-year-old son’s death, Reardon was taking 12 prescription drugs, including antidepressants, mood stabilizers, and antipsychotics.[19] Four psychiatrists testified that the drugs caused him to become emotionally unstable and hostile.[20] The judge found him not guilty by reason of insanity.[21]

Regulatory Warnings and Studies

• 2005: FDA added “homicidal ideation” as an adverse event of the SSRI antidepressant Effexor XR.[22]

• 2012: FDA’s Adverse Event Reporting System logged 1,530 cases of homicide/homicidal ideation linked to psychiatric drugs; underreporting means the actual number could reach 30,620 (at 5% reporting rate).[23]

• 2010: Pfizer added in its Black Box warning on Zoloft, “There are clinical trial and post-marketing reports with SSRIs and other newer antidepressants, in both pediatrics and adults, of severe agitation-type adverse events coupled with self-harm or harm to others.” Includes akathisia, agitation, emotional lability, hostility, aggression, and depersonalization, which can occur within several weeks of taking them.[24]

• 2020: University of Connecticut review found 10 of 16 highest-risk drugs for aggression/violence were psychiatric (benzodiazepines, antidepressants, stimulants, mood stabilizers). Effects can emerge during initiation, dose changes, or withdrawal.[25]

• 2025: Germany’s drug regulator warned of atomoxetine’s (Strattera) links to serotonin syndrome, physical assaults, threatening behavior, and homicidal thoughts.[26] Australia’s Therapeutic Goods Administration noted higher rates of aggression/hostility with atomoxetine vs. placebo. A separate warning reported “aggressive behavior including homicidal ideation.”[27]

A sample of some of numerous experts who have addressed these risks includes:

• Researchers Healy, Herxheimer, and Menkes: Antidepressant-induced emotional blunting, mania, and psychosis can contribute to hostility. Healy reported approximately 5% of antidepressant trial subjects drop out due to agitation (vs. 0.5% on placebo). Applied to current U.S. exposure levels, that represents 2.26 million potentially at risk.[28]

• David Kirschner, Ph.D., a New York forensic psychologist, has tested or evaluated 30 teenage and young adult murderers, and almost all of them had been in some kind of ‘treatment,’ usually short-term and psychoactive drug-oriented, before they killed. “These medications did not prevent but instead contributed to the violence by disinhibiting normal, frontal cortex control mechanisms….”[29]

Withdrawal Effects: At least 19 cases in CCHR’s report involved individuals likely in psychiatric drug withdrawal. Psychiatrists and media often attribute violence to “stopping medication” (implying untreated illness), yet withdrawal can cause agitation, akathisia (a severe movement disorder manifesting in distressing and severe inner restlessness that can lead to violent behavior), rebound effects, hallucinations, and mood instability—sometimes misinterpreted as relapse.

A 2019 systematic review found a weighted average of 56% of patients experience withdrawal symptoms after stopping antidepressants, the side effects of which include akathisia, new or worsening anxiety, irritability, and emotional blunting.[30]

The Journal of Psychoactive Drugs reports that all major classes of psychiatric drugs produce withdrawal syndromes, especially short half-life drugs like paroxetine, venlafaxine, and clozapine. These effects are especially severe with shorter half-life drugs such as paroxetine (SSRI), venlafaxine (SNRI), and clozapine (antipsychotic). Symptoms are frequently suppressed upon drug reinstatement.[31]

Between 15% and 35% of patients on antipsychotics may develop akathisia.[32] Akathisia is now also associated with SSRI antidepressants.[33]

• Harvard psychiatrist Dr. Joseph Glenmullen: Withdrawal may include hallucinations, severe mood instability, and suicidal/homicidal ideation.[34]

• Dr. Josef Witt-Doerring (former FDA Medical Officer): So-called “treatment-resistant” cases often reflect iatrogenic harm; protracted withdrawal can cause lasting neurological injury not reversed by restarting the drug. “The defining feature of brain damage is that it doesn’t resolve, even if the person reinstates the drug,” he says.[35]

• Psychiatric Times: Common antidepressant withdrawal effects include electric-shock sensations (“brain zaps”), cognitive impairment, anxiety, irritability, emotional blunting, and akathisia.[36]

• The Council for Evidence-Based Psychiatry in the United Kingdom determined: “Withdrawal from psychiatric drugs can be disabling and can cause a range of severe physical and psychological effects which often last for months and sometimes years….”[37]

The “No Scientific Proof” Argument — A False Standard

Some psychiatrists claim that there is “no scientific evidence” linking psychiatric drugs to violence. Such claims rely on a false standard. Randomized controlled trials deliberately testing drugs for homicide or mass violence are ethically impossible, just as no such trials could be conducted administering alcohol to participants to measure real-world car crashes or accidents as the primary outcome.[38] CCHR’s report relies on real-world evidence: regulatory warnings, adverse event reports, court findings, toxicology data, and clinical observations.

As an historical parallel, cocaine was once widely used in medicine and consumer products. Its serious risks, including addiction, agitation, paranoia, hallucinations, and violence, were minimized for decades. By the 1980s, it was recognized as highly destabilizing,[39] with one 1999 medical review in The Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry noting violent behaviors in up to 55% of patients experiencing cocaine-induced psychiatric symptoms.[40]

The lesson is not that psychiatric drugs are identical to cocaine—although some stimulants like Ritalin are similar[41]—but that central nervous system (CNS)–active substances can produce significant behavioral changes, dependence, and harm—even when initially viewed as safe medical treatments.[42]

Psychiatric drugs (antidepressants, antipsychotics, anxiolytics, stimulants, and others) alter mental processes and behavior through their action on the brain. As noted in a 2013 article in The Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, these psychoactive effects are often attributed to “treating underlying disease” rather than acknowledged as drug-induced changes. The authors observed that while recreational substances are recognized as potentially harmful to mental health, similar effects from prescribed psychiatric drugs are rarely considered.[43]

This data is not speculation. Psychiatric drugs alter brain function and mental states. Systematic investigation should include police obtaining warrants to search a suspect’s home for psychiatric medications. Mandatory psychotropic toxicology testing is essential for any deceased perpetrator of mass or extreme violence. For living suspects, law enforcement or medical personnel should request informed, voluntary consent for testing (with legal representation present). In immediate post-incident situations, biological samples may also be collected when there is an urgent need to address public safety, and which may record psychotropic drugs present.

Ultimately, much greater oversight of psychiatric drug influence in violent crimes is urgently needed.

Warning: Patients should never suddenly stop taking these medications; discontinuation should only occur under medical advice and supervision.

Legislative Recommendations

• Mandate full psychotropic drug toxicology screening and comprehensive forensic reporting of mental health treatment history and prescriptions in the autopsy of any deceased perpetrator following an incident of mass or extreme violence. For living perpetrators, require police to seek voluntary testing with informed consent (typically with legal representation). Law enforcement may also seek court-ordered collection of biological samples when public safety is at stake. Police should always obtain warrants to search a suspect’s home for psychiatric drugs and prescriptions.

• Establish a national database tracking violence, suicide, and homicide linked to psychiatric drug use or withdrawal.

• Redirect mental health funding to independent research on withdrawal and safe tapering support for those wishing to withdraw from psychotropic drugs.

[1] April 2025 HB 1349/SB 1146, https://www.capitol.tn.gov/Bills/114/Bill/HB1349.pdf; “Tennessee law requires testing dead shooters for drug links to psychotropic effects,” ABC 9 News, 12 May 2025; AbleChild: Tennessee Sets National Precedent with Passage of AbleChild Bill Requiring Psychotropic Drug Testing in Mass Shooter Cases,” https://newschannel9.com/news/local/tennessee-law-requires-testing-dead-shooters-for-drug-links-to-psychotropic-effects; The GatewayPundit, 30 Apr. 2025, https://www.thegatewaypundit.com/2025/04/ablechild-tennessee-sets-national-precedent-passage-ablechild-bill/

[2] “Mother of 6-year-old who shot Virginia teacher says son has ADHD,” ABC 30 Action News, 10 May 2023, https://abc30.com/post/deja-taylor-son-6-year-old-shoots-teacher-newport-news-virginia-abby-zwerner/13230688/

[3] James Nye, “I’m the mother of a 10-year-old murderer: Adopted mom of boy who stabbed 12 year old to death reveals how she struggled with his behavior for years but insists he’s no monster,” Daily Mail, 20 Oct. 2013, https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2469939/Adopted-mom-El-Cajon-boy-stabbed-Ryan-Carter-12-death-reveals-struggle.html

[4] “Nevada School Shooter Said He Was Teased, Police Say,” NBC News, 13 May 2014, https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/nevada-school-shooter-said-he-was-teased-police-say-n104756; “Nevada school shooter left 2 suicide notes,” USA Today, 13 May 2014, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/05/13/nevada-shooter-suicide-notes/9063429/

[5] “Defendant gets 30 years in Zoloft trial,” NBC News, 14 Feb. 2005, https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna6970412

[6] James R. Langford, “Teen’s Life Full Of Contradictions – The 15-Year-Old Who Shot Two Teachers And Then Himself Hinted That He Would Not Be Alive Much Longer,” The Augusta Chronicle, 22 Oct. 1995

[7] “Psychiatrist who treated Cruz says he never received school’s warning letter,” Local 10 News, 26 Aug. 2022, https://www.local10.com/news/local/2022/08/26/psychiatrist-who-treated-cruz-says-he-never-received-schools-letter-warning-of-obsession-with-guns-killing/; “Parkland school shooter’s defense calls witnesses who saw pregnant mother use alcohol, drugs,” Local 10 News, 23 Aug. 2022,  https://www.local10.com/news/local/2022/08/22/opening-statements-begin-for-defense-in-parkland-school-shooters-penalty-phase-trial/

[8] Mollie Mansfield, Luke Kenton, et al., “TEEN ‘KILLER’ Indianapolis FedEx shooter named as Brandon Scott Hole, 19, who was ‘known to cops’ before he ‘killed 8 & then himself,’” U.S. Sun, 16 Apr. 2021, https://www.the-sun.com/news/2712242/indianapolis-fedex-shooter-named-brandon-scott-hole/; Tony Cook and Johnny Magdaleno, “Timeline: FedEx shooter had over a dozen mental health care, law enforcement encounters,” Indianapolis Star, 11 Nov. 2021, https://www.indystar.com/in-depth/news/investigations/2021/11/11/fedex-shooting-timeline-shows-killers-encounters-authorities/6237889001/

[9] “Mass Shooter Database,” The Violence Prevention Project, https://www.theviolenceproject.org/mass-shooter-database/; “Autopsies sealed in ongoing investigation,” Uvalde Leader News, 24 Nov. 2022, https://www.uvaldeleadernews.com/articles/autopsies-sealed-in-ongoing-investigation/

[10] “National Mental Health Services Survey (N-MHSS): 2019” Data on Mental Health Treatment Facilities,” Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, https://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/reports/rpt29388/2019_NMHSS/2019_NMHSS.html

[11] https://www.cchrint.org/2025/09/26/prescription-psychiatric-drugs-fuel-americas-addiction-and-overdose-crisis/; “Psychotropic Medication Prescribing Across Medical Providers, 2016–2019,” Psychiatry OnLine, 20 Nov. 2023, https://www.psychiatryonline.org/doi/10.1176/appi.ps.20230156

[12] “Esketamine for Treatment Resistant Depression,” John Hopkins Medicine, https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/treatment-tests-and-therapies/esketamine-for-treatment-resistant-depression

[13] Troy Farah, “Prescribed Ketamine Turned These Men Violent, Allege Lawsuits,” VICE, 13 May 2020,https://www.vice.com/en/article/prescribed-ketamine-turned-these-men-violent-allege-lawsuits/

[14] Troy Farah, “Prescribed Ketamine Turned These Men Violent, Allege Lawsuits,” VICE, 13 May 2020, https://www.vice.com/en/article/prescribed-ketamine-turned-these-men-violent-allege-lawsuits/

[15] “Jury Finds Glaxo to Blame in Shooting,” Los Angeles Times, 8 June 2001, https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2001-jun-08-fi-7872-story.html; David Healy, Andrew Herxheimer, and David B Menkes, “Antidepressants and Violence: Problems at the Interface of Medicine and Law,” PLoS Medicine, Sept. 2006, 3(9): e372, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1564177/; “Jury: Paxil Maker Must Pay $8 Million,” ABC News, 6 June 2001, https://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=117410&page=1; Philip J. Hits, “Jury Awards $6.4 Million In Killings Tied to Drug,” The New York Times, 8 June 2001, https://www.nytimes.com/2001/06/08/us/jury-awards-6.4-million-in-killings-tied-to-drug.html

[16] Sarah Boseley, “Prozac class drug blamed for killing,” The Guardian (London), 2 May 2001, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2001/may/26/sarahboseley; “Australian Supreme Court Justice Rules Zoloft Caused Man to Murder His Wife,” Wisner Baum, 25 May 2001, https://www.wisnerbaum.com/blog/2001/may/australian-supreme-court-justice-rules-zoloft-ca/

[17] Sarah Bosely, “Family sues drug firm over baby killing,” The Guardian, 22 Feb 2000, https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/sep/23/sarahboseley; Ehlis v. Shire Richwood, Inc., 367 F.3d 1013, 1013 (8th Cir. 2004) (Nos. 02-3933, 03-1057), appeal from the U.S. District Court for the District of North Dakota, https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/367/1013/495736/; “Man sues drugmaker for $100,000,” Deseret News, 24 Sept. 2000, https://www.deseret.com/2000/9/24/19530492/man-sues-drugmaker-for-100-000

[18] Tom Blackwell, “‘Prozac defence’ stands in Manitoba teen’s murder case,” National Post (Canada), 7 Dec. 2022, https://nationalpost.com/news/canada/prozac-defence-stands-in-manitoba-teens-murder-case; Mike McIntyre, “Young killer can’t explain why he stabbed friend,” Free Press, 26 May 2011, https://www.winnipegfreepress.com/breakingnews/2011/05/26/young-killer-cant-explain-why-he-stabbed-friend

[19] “Reardon found not guilty,” Sun Sentinel, 29 Aug. 2006, https://www.sun-sentinel.com/2006/08/29/reardon-found-not-guilty/

[20] “Patient Safety: Aggression, Irritability, and Violence: Drug-Induced Behaviors,” University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Feb. 2020

[21] “Judge finds Reardon not guilty on robbery charge,” ESPN, 28 Aug. 2006, https://www.espn.com/mlb/news/story?id=2564122

[22] FDA, Effexor XR Extended Release Capsules – Label, 2005, https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2005/020699s059lbl.pdf

[23] https://www.cchrint.org/2022/12/09/common-stimulant-prescribed-to-children-and-teens-has-homicidal-warning/; Thomas J. Moore, Joseph Glenmullen, Curt D. Furberg, “Prescription drugs associated with reports of violence towards others,” PLoS One, 15 Dec. 2010, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21179515/

[24] https://www.pfizer.ca/files/Zoloft_cp_EN.pdf

[25] https://www.cchrint.org/2026/03/09/cia-mind-control-history-is-a-predictor-of-todays-mass-psychiatric-drug-expansion/; “Patient Safety: Aggression, Irritability, and Violence: Drug-induced Behaviors,” University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Feb. 2020, https://pharmacy.uconn.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2740/2021/04/ACCESSIBLE-CPPR-Aggression-Irritability-and-Violence-JAN2020-FINAL-smaller.pdf

[26] https://www.cchrint.org/2025/07/18/regulators-warn-adhd-drug-can-trigger-homicidal-thoughts-parents-and-consumers-need-to-be-informed/; “Atomoxetine: New warnings about serotonin syndrome and homicidal thoughts,” Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 7 Feb. 2025, https://www.bfarm.de/SharedDocs/Risikoinformationen/Pharmakovigilanz/EN/RI/2025/RI-atomoxetin.html

[27] Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration “Product Information safety updates – May 2025, Product Information safety updates,” 26 June 2025, https://www.tga.gov.au/news/safety-updates/product-information-safety-updates-june-2025; “Product Information safety updates – April 2025,” 22 May 2025, https://www.tga.gov.au/news/safety-updates/product-information-safety-updates-april-2025-0; AUSTRALIAN PRODUCT INFORMATION APO-ATOMOXETINE (ATOMOXETINE HYDROCHLORIDE) CAPSULES

[28] David Healy, Andrew Herxheimer, David B Menkes, “Antidepressants and Violence: Problems at the Interface of Medicine and Law,” PLoS Med. 1 Sept. 2005, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1564177/

[29] David Kirschner, PhD, “Mass shooters received only limited treatment,” The National Psychologist, 26 Jul. 2017, http://nationalpsychologist.com/2014/09/mass-shooters-received-only-limited-treatment/102638.html

[30] https://www.cchrint.org/2026/02/23/antidepressant-withdrawal-severe-prolonged/; James Davies and John Read, “A systematic review into the incidence, severity and duration of antidepressant withdrawal effects: Are guidelines evidence-based?” Addictive Behaviors, 97 (2019), p. 111, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306460318308347; Nicolas Badre, MD, et al., “Exiting Antidepressants: A Needed Spotlight on Withdrawal,” Psychiatric Times, 9 Feb. 2026, https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/exiting-antidepressants-a-needed-spotlight-on-withdrawal

[31] Joanna Moncrieff, David Cohen, Sally Porter, “The Psychoactive Effects of Psychiatric Medication: The Elephant in the Room,” J Psychoactive Drugs, 18 Nov. 2013, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4118946/; https://www.cchrint.org/2019/08/05/getting-it-right-about-antidepressants/; Joanna Moncrieff, M.B.B.S., et al., “The Psychoactive Effects of Psychiatric Medication: The Elephant in the Room,” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 45 (5), 409–415, 2013, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4118946/

[32] Stanley N. Caroff, MD, “Antipsychotic-Related Movement Disorders: Akathisia,” Medscape, 3 June 2021, https://decisionpoint.medscape.com/psychiatry/viewarticle/948649

[33] “Antipsychotic-induced akathisia in delirium: A systematic review,” Palliat Support Care, 2016 Feb; 14(1): 77–84, 19 Jun. 2015, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5516628/

[34] https://www.cchrint.org/2023/03/20/watchdog-says-studies-prove-antidepressant-withdrawal/; Joseph Glenmullen, M.D., The Antidepressant Solution: A Step-by-Step Guide to Safely Overcoming Antidepressant Withdrawal, Dependence, and “Addiction” (Free Press, 2006), pp. 7, 36-38

[35] https://www.cchrint.org/2025/12/19/psychiatric-drug-damage-ignored-for-decades/; Josef Witt-Doerring, “The Ethics of Long-Term Psychiatric Drug Use and Why We Need a Better Way,” Mad in America, 27 Feb 2025, https://www.madinamerica.com/2025/02/ethics-psychiatric-drug-use/

[36] Nicolas Badre, MD, et al., “Exiting Antidepressants: A Needed Spotlight on Withdrawal,” Psychiatric Times, Vol 43, Issue 2, 9 Feb. 2026, https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/exiting-antidepressants-a-needed-spotlight-on-withdrawal

[37] “Withdrawal from psychiatric drugs can be disabling and can cause a range of severe physical and psychological effects….,” Council for Evidence-Based Psychiatry, 15 Mar. 2014, https://ravimid.files.wordpress.com/2015/02/psychiatric-drug-withdrawal-can-be-disabling-010314-1.pdf

[38] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5473736/; “Effects of a Community-Level Intervention on Alcohol-Related Motor Vehicle Crashes in California Cities: A Randomized Trial,” Amer. Journ. of Preventive Medicine, Jan 2021, https://www.ajpmonline.org/article/S0749-3797(20)30388-3/fulltext

[39] “History of cocaine,” Kaspero Law, https://www.bartkasperolaw.com/drug-charges/history/history-of-cocaine/

[40] W. Alexander Morton, “Cocaine and Psychiatric Symptoms,” Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry,  Aug. 1999, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC181074/

[41] “Pay Attention: Ritalin Acts Much Like Cocaine,” JAMA, 22-29 Aug. 2001, https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/194125

[42] “The Most Addictive Prescription Drugs on the Market,” Healthline, https://www.healthline.com/health/addiction/addictive-prescription-drugs#helping-loved-ones

[43] Joanna Moncrieff, David Cohen, Sally Porter, “The Psychoactive Effects of Psychiatric Medication: The Elephant in the Room,” J Psychoactive Drugs, 18 Nov. 2013, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4118946/